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equity

(Encyclopedia)equity, principles of justice originally developed by the English chancellor. In Anglo-American jurisprudence equitable principles and remedies are distinguished from the older system that the common ...

citizen

(Encyclopedia)citizen, member of a state, native or naturalized, who owes allegiance to the government of the state and is entitled to certain rights. Citizens may be said to enjoy the most privileged form of natio...

Adams, Henry

(Encyclopedia)Adams, Henry, 1838–1918, American writer and historian, b. Boston; son of Charles Francis Adams (1807–86). He was secretary (1861–68) to his father, then U.S. minister to Great Britain. Upon his...

nationalism

(Encyclopedia)nationalism, political or social philosophy in which the welfare of the nation-state as an entity is considered paramount. Nationalism is basically a collective state of mind or consciousness in which...

church and state

(Encyclopedia)church and state, the relationship between the religion or religions of a nation and the civil government of that nation, especially the relationship between the Christian church and various civil gov...

Mamluk

(Encyclopedia)Mamluk or Mameluke mămˈəlo͞ok [key] [Arab.,=slaves], a warrior caste dominant in Egypt and influential in the Middle East for over 700 years. Islamic rulers created this warrior caste by collectin...

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

(Encyclopedia)Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich gāˈôrkh vĭlˈhĕlm frēˈdrĭkh hāˈgəl [key], 1770–1831, German philosopher, b. Stuttgart; son of a government clerk. Hegel has influenced many subsequent p...

electrolysis

(Encyclopedia)CE5 Electrolysis: In a typical reaction electrodes are placed in a solution of hydrogen chloride, HCl, which contains both hydrogen and chlorine ions. The battery removes electrons from the anode, ...

refrigeration

(Encyclopedia)CE5 Compression system of refrigeration refrigeration, process for drawing heat from substances to lower their temperature, often for purposes of preservation. Refrigeration in its modern, portabl...

caliphate

(Encyclopedia)caliphate kălˈĭfˌ [key], the spiritual head and temporal ruler of the Islamic state. In principle, Islam is theocratic: when Muhammad died, a caliph [Arab.,=successor] was chosen to rule in his pl...