(Encyclopedia) caliphatecaliphatekălˈĭfātˌ, –fĭt [key], the rulership of Islam; caliphcaliphkălˈĭfˌ [key], the spiritual head and temporal ruler of the Islamic state. In principle, Islam is…
(Encyclopedia) MuawiyaMuawiyam&oomacr;äˈwēä [key], d. 680, 1st Umayyad caliph (661–80), one of the greatest Muslim statesmen; son of Abu Sufyan, a Koreish tribesman of Mecca. He submitted to…
(Encyclopedia) Essebsi, Beji CaidEssebsi, Beji Caidbäˈzhē cäˈĭd əsĕbˈsē [key], 1926–2019, Tunisian political leader. A lawyer and ally of President Bourguiba, he held several posts in his and…
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(Encyclopedia) Mahmud II, 1784–1839, Ottoman sultan (1808–39), younger son of Abd al-Hamid I. He was raised to the throne of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) upon the deposition of his brother, Mustafa IV…
(Encyclopedia) UmayyadUmayyad&oomacr;mäˈyäd [key], the first Islamic dynasty (661–750). Their reign witnessed the return to leadership roles of the pre-Islamic Arab elite, and the rejuvenation of…
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